There are two ways for production of nanomaterials. The first way is initiate with a bulk material and then to break it into smaller pieces using various forms of energy, chemical and mechanical (top-down). A contradictory approach is to synthesis the material from a molecular species or atom by means of allowing for the precursor particles to grow in size and chemical reactions (bottom-up). Both approaches can be used in either gas, liquid, supercritical fluids, solid states, or in vacuum. Most of the manufacturers are interested in the ability to control: a) particle size b) particle shape c) size distribution d) particle composition e) degree of particle agglomeration. |
Methods for Controlling the Construction and Growth of the Nanoparticles
Two general ways are available to control the formation and growth of the nanoparticles. One is called arrested precipitation and depends either on exhaustion of one of the reactants or on the introduction of the chemical that would block the reaction. Another method relies on a physical restriction of the volume available for the growth of the individual nanoparticles by using templates.
Sol-gel Process
The sol gel method is a long-established industrial process for the generation of colloidal nanoparticles from liquid phase for the production of advanced nanomaterials and coatings. Sol-gel-processes are well customized for oxide nanoparticles and composites nanopowders synthesis. The core advantages of sol-gel techniques for the preparation of materials are low temperature of processing, versatility, and flexible rheology allowing easy shaping and embedding. They offer unique opportunities for access to organic-inorganic materials. The most commonly used precursors of oxides are alkoxides, due to their commercial availability and to the high liability of the M-OR bond allowing facile tailoring in situ during processing.
Aerosol-Based Processes
Aerosol-based processes are a widespread method for the industrial production of nanoparticles. Aerosols can be defined as solid or liquid particles in a gas phase, where the particles can range from molecules up to 100 µm in size. Aerosols were used in industrial manufacturing long before the basic science and engineering of the aerosols were understood. For example, carbon black particles used in pigments and reinforced car tires are produced by hydrocarbon combustion; titania pigment for use in paints and plastics is made by oxidation of titanium tetrachloride; fumed silica and titania formed from respective tetrachlorides by flame pyrolysis; optical fibres are manufactured by similar process.
Traditionally, spraying is used either to dry wet materials or to deposit coatings. Spraying of the precursor chemicals onto a heated surface or into the hot atmosphere results in precursor pyrolysis and formation of the particles. For example, a room temperature electro-spraying process was developed at Oxford University to produce nanoparticles of compound semiconductors and some metals. In particular, CdS nanoparticles were produced by generating aerosol micro-droplets containing Cd salt in the atmosphere containing hydrogen sulphide.
Chemical Vapour Deposition (CVD)
CVD consists in activating a chemical reaction between the substrate surface and a gaseous precursor. Activation can be achieved either with temperature (Thermal CVD) or with a plasma (PECVD: Plasma Enhanced Chemical Vapour Deposition). The main advantage is the nondirective aspect of this technology. Plasma allows to decrease significantly the process temperature compared to the thermal CVD process. CVD is widely used to produce carbon nanotubes.
Atomic or Molecular Condensation
This method is employed chiefly for metal containing nanoparticles. A bulk material is heated in vacuum to produce a stream of vaporised and atomised matter, which is directed to a chamber containing either inert or reactive gas atmosphere. Rapid cooling of the metal atoms due to their collision with the gas molecules results in the condensation and formation of nanoparticles. If a reactive gas like oxygen is used then metal oxide nanoparticles are produced.
Gas-Phase Condensation to Produce Metal Nanopowders
The theory of gas-phase condensation for the production of metal nanopowders is well known, having been first reported in 1930. Gas-phase condensation uses a vacuum chamber that consists of a heating element, the metal to be made into nano-powder, powder collection equipment and vacuum hardware.
The Working of Gas-Phase Condensation Process
The process uses a gas, which is inert, at high pressures to promote particle formation, but low enough to allow the production of spherical particles. Metal is introduced onto a heated element and is rapidly melted. The metal is quickly taken to temperatures far above the melting point, but less than the boiling point, so that an adequate vapour pressure is achieved. Gas is continuously introduced into the chamber and removed by the pumps, so the gas flow moves the evaporated metal away from the hot element. As the gas cools the metal vapour, nanometer-sized particles form. These particles are liquid since they are still too hot to be solid. The liquid particles collide and coalesce in a controlled environment so that the particles grow to specification, remaining spherical and with smooth surfaces. As the liquid particles are further cooled under control, they become solid and grow no longer. At this point the nanoparticles are very reactive, so they are coated with a material that prevents further interaction with other particles (agglomeration) or with other materials.
Supercritical Fluid Synthesis
Methods using supercritical fluids are also powerful for the synthesis of nanoparticles. For these methods, the properties of a supercritical fluid (fluid forced into supercritical state by regulating its temperature and its pressure) are used to form nanoparticles by a rapid expansion of a supercritical solution. Supercritical fluid method is currently developed at the pilot scale in a continuous process.
Spinning to Make Thin Polymer Fibers
An emerging technology for the manufacture of thin polymer fibers is based on the principle of spinning dilute polymer solutions in a high voltage electric field. Electro spinning is a process by which a suspended drop of polymer is charged with thousands of volts. At a characteristic voltage the droplet forms a Taylor cone, and a fine jet of polymer releases from the surface in response to the tensile forces generated by interaction of an applied electric field, with the electrical charge carried by the jet. This produces a bundle of polymer fibers. The jet can be directed to a grounded surface and collected as a continuous web of fibers ranging in size from a few µm’s to less than 100 nm.
Using Templates to Form Nanoparticles
Any material containing regular nano-sized pores or voids can be used as a template to form nanoparticles. Examples of such templates include porous alumina, zeolites, di-block co-polymers, dendrimers, proteins and other molecules. The template does not have to be a 3D object. Artificial templates can be created on a plane surface or a gas-liquid interface by forming self-assembled monolayers.
Self-Assembly of Nanoparticles
Nanoparticles of a wide range of materials - including a variety of organic and biological compounds, but also inorganic oxides, metals, and semiconductors - can be processed using chemical self-assembly techniques. These techniques exploit selective attachment of molecules to specific surfaces, biomolecular recognition and self-ordering principles (e.g. the preferential docking of DNA strands with complementary base pairs) as well as well-developed chemistry for attaching molecules onto clusters and substrates (e.g. thiol (-SH) end groups) and other techniques like reverse micelle, sonochemical, and photochemical synthesis to realise 1-D, 2-D and 3-D self-assembled nanostructures. The molecular building blocks act as parts of a jigsaw puzzle that join together in a perfect order without an obvious driving force present. |